What is a user account?
In Windows XP, a user account is a collection of information that tells Windows what files and folders you can access, what changes you can make to the computer, and your personal preferences, such as your desktop background or color theme.
User accounts make it so that you can share a computer with several people, but still have your own files and settings. Each person accesses their user account with a user name and password.
For information about how user accounts work in Windows Vista, see Windows Help and How-To: What is a user account?
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Why use a Limited User account for browsing the Web?
There are two types of user accounts in Windows XP:
• Limited User accounts
• Administrator accounts
If you work in a Limited User account, you might be able to decrease the effect of a virus or other malicious software.
But if the attack happens while you're in an Administrator account, the attacker can gain full access to your computer and the results can range from annoying to catastrophic.
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See which type of account you're using now
If you're using Microsoft Windows XP, move your pointer over the clock on the bottom right of your screen. Right-click the clock, and then click, Adjust Date/Time.
• If you're using a Limited User account, you will get a message reading "You do not have the proper privilege level to change System Time."
• If you are using an Administrator account, a small window will open with controls you can use to change the time and date on your computer.
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What's the difference between Administrator and Limited User accounts?
An Administrator account is an account that lets you make changes that will affect other users, such as changing security settings. You can access all the files on the computer from an Administrator account.
When you work in an Administrator account, you can:
• Set up your computer and install your initial software and hardware.
• Set preferences and make repairs.
• Add new programs and hardware, such as music-sharing software or a printer.
Administrator accounts are the default type of account for Windows XP.
A Limited User account lets you use most of the capabilities of the computer, but only an Administrator can make changes that affect other users of the computer. For example, in a Limited User account, you can use:
• Web browsers and e-mail programs
• Productivity programs such as Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint
• Entertainment programs that let you play music and video, edit photographs, and much more
Note: You can also create a Guest account, which has most of the functions of a Limited User account but it is not password-protected, so a guest user can quickly log on and off again to perform simple tasks, such as checking e-mail or browsing the Internet.
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Set up a user account
Using the right kind of account at the right time is an excellent way to help protect your computer, and setting up accounts is simple.
For a step-by-step guide to setting up a new user account, see Create and customize user accounts.
Note: By default, Windows Vista runs your programs in a secure mode using standard user privileges. When an application attempts to perform a potentially dangerous operation that requires administrator privileges, Windows Vista asks you for your consent before allowing that program to run. This helps reduce the impact of viruses, spyware, and other threats. For more information, see Windows Vista User Account Control.
Source:http://www.microsoft.com/protect/computer/advanced/useraccount.mspx
Information
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Internet Security Guide
Securing Your Computer When Connected To The InternetInternet security has become a serious issue for anyone connected to the net. Even if you don't think you have anything worth protecting on your computer, it's still important that you keep it locked down.
Your files are not the only thing at stake here. If someone gains access to your computer, it can be used as a "zombie" for hacking into other computer, hiding the trail of the person who is actually doing it.
How would you like to get a call from your local police telling you that there's been a virus attack that has been traced back to your computer?
No, even if your computer isn't used for anything critical you need to run security software such as an antivirus and a firewall.
These programs will keep your computer "hidden" from prying eyes over the internet, as well as protected from viruses and other malware that can be spread through email or other methods.
You also need to make sure you're familiar with the different types of security threats so you can deal with them if they ever come up.
We've got information on all the major types of security threats on this website - just click any of the links at the top of the page to read more about them.
-Source:http://www.internetsecurityguide.org/
Your files are not the only thing at stake here. If someone gains access to your computer, it can be used as a "zombie" for hacking into other computer, hiding the trail of the person who is actually doing it.
How would you like to get a call from your local police telling you that there's been a virus attack that has been traced back to your computer?
No, even if your computer isn't used for anything critical you need to run security software such as an antivirus and a firewall.
These programs will keep your computer "hidden" from prying eyes over the internet, as well as protected from viruses and other malware that can be spread through email or other methods.
You also need to make sure you're familiar with the different types of security threats so you can deal with them if they ever come up.
We've got information on all the major types of security threats on this website - just click any of the links at the top of the page to read more about them.
-Source:http://www.internetsecurityguide.org/
Internet Security
When a computer connects to a network and begins communicating with others, it is taking a risk. Internet security involves the protection of a computer's internet account and files from intrusion of an unknown user.[1] Basic security measures involve protection by well selected passwords, change of file permissions and back up of computer's data.
Security concerns are in some ways peripheral to normal business working, but serve to highlight just how important it is that business users feel confident when using IT systems. Security will probably always be high on the IT agenda simply because cyber criminals know that a successful attack is very profitable. This means they will always strive to find new ways to circumvent IT security, and users will consequently need to be continually vigilant. Whenever decisions need to be made about how to enhance a system, security will need to be held uppermost among its requirements.
Internet security professionals should be fluent in the four major aspects:
Penetration testing
Intrusion Detection
Incidence Response
Legal / Audit Compliance
Anti-virus
Some apparently useful programs also contain features with hidden malicious intent. Such programs are known as Malware, Viruses, Trojans, Worms, Spyware and Bots.
Malware is the most general name for any malicious software designed for example to infiltrate, spy on or damage a computer or other programmable device or system of sufficient complexity, such as a home or office computer system, network, mobile phone, PDA, automated device or robot.
Viruses are programs which are able to replicate their structure or effect by integrating themselves or references to themselves, etc into existing files or structures on a penetrated computer. They usually also have a malicious or humorous payload designed to threaten or modify the actions or data of the host device or system without consent. For example by deleting, corrupting or otherwise hiding information from its owner.
Trojans(Trojan Horsesare programs which may pretend to do one thing, but in reality steal information, alter it or cause other problems on a such as a computer or programmable device / system. Trojans can be hard to detect
Spyware includes programs that surreptitiously monitor keystrokes, or other activity on a computer system and report that information to others without consent.
Worms are programs which are able to replicate themselves over a (possibly extensive) computer network, and also perform malicious acts that may ultimately affect a whole society / economy.
Bots are program which take over and use the resources of a computer system over a network without consent, and communicate those results to others who may control the Bots.
The above concepts overlap and they can obviously be combined. The terminology is evolving.
Antivirus programs and Internet security programs are useful in protecting a computer or programmable device / system from malware.
Such programs are used to detect and usually eliminate viruses. Anti-virus software can be purchased or downloaded via the internet. Care should be taken in selecting anti-virus software, as some programs are not as effective as others in finding and eliminating viruses or malware. Also, when downloading anti-virus software from the Internet, one should be cautious as some websites say they are providing protection from viruses with their software, but are really trying to install malware on your computer by disguising it as something else.
Anti-spyware
There are two major kinds of threats in relation to spyware:
Spyware collects and relays data from the compromised computer to a third-party.
Adware automatically plays, displays, or downloads advertisements. Some types of adware are also spyware and can be classified as privacy-invasive software. Adware often are integrated with other software.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_security
Security concerns are in some ways peripheral to normal business working, but serve to highlight just how important it is that business users feel confident when using IT systems. Security will probably always be high on the IT agenda simply because cyber criminals know that a successful attack is very profitable. This means they will always strive to find new ways to circumvent IT security, and users will consequently need to be continually vigilant. Whenever decisions need to be made about how to enhance a system, security will need to be held uppermost among its requirements.
Internet security professionals should be fluent in the four major aspects:
Penetration testing
Intrusion Detection
Incidence Response
Legal / Audit Compliance
Anti-virus
Some apparently useful programs also contain features with hidden malicious intent. Such programs are known as Malware, Viruses, Trojans, Worms, Spyware and Bots.
Malware is the most general name for any malicious software designed for example to infiltrate, spy on or damage a computer or other programmable device or system of sufficient complexity, such as a home or office computer system, network, mobile phone, PDA, automated device or robot.
Viruses are programs which are able to replicate their structure or effect by integrating themselves or references to themselves, etc into existing files or structures on a penetrated computer. They usually also have a malicious or humorous payload designed to threaten or modify the actions or data of the host device or system without consent. For example by deleting, corrupting or otherwise hiding information from its owner.
Trojans(Trojan Horsesare programs which may pretend to do one thing, but in reality steal information, alter it or cause other problems on a such as a computer or programmable device / system. Trojans can be hard to detect
Spyware includes programs that surreptitiously monitor keystrokes, or other activity on a computer system and report that information to others without consent.
Worms are programs which are able to replicate themselves over a (possibly extensive) computer network, and also perform malicious acts that may ultimately affect a whole society / economy.
Bots are program which take over and use the resources of a computer system over a network without consent, and communicate those results to others who may control the Bots.
The above concepts overlap and they can obviously be combined. The terminology is evolving.
Antivirus programs and Internet security programs are useful in protecting a computer or programmable device / system from malware.
Such programs are used to detect and usually eliminate viruses. Anti-virus software can be purchased or downloaded via the internet. Care should be taken in selecting anti-virus software, as some programs are not as effective as others in finding and eliminating viruses or malware. Also, when downloading anti-virus software from the Internet, one should be cautious as some websites say they are providing protection from viruses with their software, but are really trying to install malware on your computer by disguising it as something else.
Anti-spyware
There are two major kinds of threats in relation to spyware:
Spyware collects and relays data from the compromised computer to a third-party.
Adware automatically plays, displays, or downloads advertisements. Some types of adware are also spyware and can be classified as privacy-invasive software. Adware often are integrated with other software.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_security
Internet Privacy Law
INTRODUCTION
The right to privacy in Internet activity is a serious issue facing society. 1 Some users of the 'net wish to shield their identities while participating in frank discussions of sensitive topics. Others fulfill fantasies and harmlessly role play under the cover of a false identity in chatrooms, MUDs or the IRC. But there are the eternal "bad apples," and on the Internet, they are the people who use anonymous servers as more than a way to avoid responsibility for controversial remarks. Cases of harassment and abuse have become increasingly frequent, aided by a cloak of anonymity. 2 There are also problems with frauds and scam artists who elude law enforcement authorities through anonymous mailings and postings. Other users are concerned about the proliferation of information on the Internet. Databases of court records are now available for free over the World Wide Web. 3
Since no formal law exists within cyberspace, Internet users can find recourse only through the applicable laws of their own government. This web page will not attempt to discuss conflict of law in the international arena, but will address US law and its relevance to the American Internet user.
CONSTITUTIONAL BASIS FOR PRIVACY
Nowhere does the text of the United States Constitution contain the word "privacy." 4 The Supreme Court has found the concept of "privacy" to be protected by a number of the Amendments.5 Thus, privacy is known as a "penumbra right." 6 It is the essence of the Bill of Rights and thus a guaranteed right.
INVASION OF PRIVACY
This page will discuss five aspects of invasion of privacy as it applies to American netizens. These are: search and seizure, unsolicited e-mail, defamation, secrecy and the creation of databases consisting of personal information.
The United States Supreme Court has stated that American citizens have the protection of the Fourth Amendment (freedom from search and seizure absent warrant) when there is a reasonable expectation of privacy. 7 Without a reasonable expectation of privacy, however, there is no privacy right to protect. 8 Files stored on disk or tape in the home are protected, but the rule becomes less clear when applied to files stored on an Internet access provider's server. 9 Web servers, on the other hand, may be protected by federal law. 10 Some argue that consent of the access provider, however, is all that is required for law enforcement authorities to search and seize any files in the possession of that access provider. Internet service providers may have a lot of information about the users because servers routinely record information about users' e-mail and web browsing habits. 11
Unsolicited email is not regulated by federal law at present. Various states have outlawedunsolicited commercial email, however. A federal judge in Philadelphiahas ruled that companies have no First Amendment right to send unsolicited messages to online service subscribers. 13 One community remedy preferred by many users is to complain to the offender's service provider and publicly denounce the action on the Internet Blacklist. Another possibility for those with Eudora for the PC is to filter out unsolicited email. 14 Other free software claims to eliminate unwanted email. 15 Individuals have sued spammers in court and won. 16
Individual states specifically prohibit defamation, no matter what form it takes. Defamation consists of false and unprivileged publication which results in economic damages. Financial loss is not necessary where the statement implies that a person is a criminal or has an unpleasant disease, or which injures a person in respect to his other office, profession, or business. A judge in Texas issued an injunction to stop defamatory posting by an Internet user. 17 Hate messages sent by e-mail have also resulted in criminal penalties. 18
In some cases, companies have asked the court system to identify the authors of anonymous defamatorymessages. This has been done by filing "John Doe" lawsuits andissuing subpoenas to Yahoo! and other message boards where individuals have posted the disparaging messages. 19 Most such subpoenas go unchallenged. 20 One CompuServe user has complained that his service provider turned over account information, including credit card numbers, without any notice to him.21 One such plaintiff, Raytheon Corporation, dropped its suit as soon as it discovered the names of the people posting anonymous messages.22
Trade secrets and other confidential information can also pose legal problems. Unauthorized entry into a computer system is illegal, whether the target machine is connected to the Internet or not. 23 Nevertheless, hackers still manage to get past the most difficult of firewalls. 24 Compromise of company secrets can lead to millions of dollars in damages. Hacking is not the only danger to sensitive information, however. 25 Some software can tell webmasters which visitors came from which links. 26 In addition, all e-mail has an address attached. Even if the messagecontent is encrypted, system administrators have access to the fact of communication between two parties. 27 The existence of communication can itself often be secret, and the Internet cannot provide absolute security. In many ways, the Internet abhors secrecy. Many netizens believe in an absolute free-flow of all information.
A few companies are creating huge databases full of private information. 28 Websites may even collect email addresses inadvertently. 29 In many cases, there is no prohibition on the dissemination of personal information. 30 The federal government regulates only its own databases, leaving private database owners to decide how and when to distribute collected information. 31
Webmasters have begun using "cookies" as a means of accumulating information about web surfers without having to ask for it. 32 Cookies attempt to keep track of visitors to a Web site. 33 Criticism of cookies has included fear of the loss of privacy. 34 The information that cookies collect from users may be profitable both in the aggregate and by the individual. Whether the convenience that cookies provide outweighs the loss of privacy isaquestion each Internet user must decide for him or herself. 35
America OnLine has been accused of selling data based information about users. 36 This has led to an effort on the part of cookie proponents to control the amount of information that cookies collect. 37 Not all proponents of cookies adhere to the voluntary standards. The Federal Trade Commission determined that Geocities, a popular web site where users input personal information, was selling information in apparent violation of its own privacy policy. 38
WAIVER
Internet users sometimes do not realize the amount of privacy that is lost when accessing the online world. Usenet postings and contributions to bulletin boards may remain archived forever. 39 Public records are available free or for a fee. 40 While much of this information has been freely available in the past, the advent of the Internet has made it available more easily and quickly.
LIABILITY
Generally, there is no safety in activity that is unlawful. Anonymity should not be considered a secure shield because, ultimately, any data may be intercepted. 41 An offender is specifically liable for damages to the victim. At times, this liability can be extended to include others (e.g. an employer) with a greater capacity for satisfying the judgment.
In addition, there is current disagreement about whether a system operator or an access provider should be held liable. 42 The 1996 Telecommunications Act protects access providers from liability for the unlawful acts of users (except copyright infringement or obscenity). 43 Some Courts have protected ISPs and online services from vicarious liability for the acts of subscribers/customers. On the other hand, vicarious liability, even without knowledge, may result when either the web page designer or the ISP (1) has the right and ability to control the infringer's acts and (2) receives a direct financial benefit from the infringement.
JURISDICTION
The law surrounding issues of jurisdiction over individualsand businesses with an online presence continues to evolve. 44 The first such case was U.S. v. Thomas. Courts in Minnesota, Arizona and Ohio have made similar determinations. One Californiacase is Hall v. LaRonde. In that opinion, the California Appellate Court stated that creating a contract over email could warrant the exercise of jurisdiction. Some argue that the nature of the Internet could result in forum shopping and the necessity of modifying traditional notions of venue requirements. 45 Other courts have declined to exercise jurisdiction on the simple basis of accessibility of the Web page. 46 So the question of whether any individual court will decide to find jurisdiction on any specific set of facts is an issue for the judge hearing the case. The US Supreme Court will almost certainly lay down some guidelines within the next few years.
PROTECTION
Avoiding the seizure of communication in transit is less a legal problem than a technological one. There is software that can provide privacy protection for the individual Internet user. 47 Hardware exists that can prevent very sophisticated industrial espionage. 48 Of most concern to the common Internet user is protection of email. The most famous encryption software is PGP,created by Phil Zimmerman. The U.S. government has attempted to suppress other means of strong encryption. 49 These attempts have not always been successful, however. 50
Anonymous discourse is still available through the use of "remailers." 51 Various problems with the anon.penet.fi forwarding service, a famous anonymous remailing service in Finland, have led to a discontinuation of that service. 52 Other remailers continue to provide anonymity to e-mail and Usenet participants. 53
The key to anonymous publishing on the World Wide Web is to have as many web servers within the control and/or trust of the publisher. It also helpsto have a number of other servers performing a service to the community.Ian Goldburg and David Wagner at Berkeley are attempting to provide that service. 54
Recent versions of Netscape and Internet Explorer give web surfers the option of refusing to accept cookies. Windows users may automatically delete all cookies with every restart of the machine. 55
CONCLUSION
Before attempting anonymity on the Internet, it is best to think for a moment about your purpose and intent in hiding your identity. Think as well about the impact of the statement you wish to communicate. The safest course may be to acknowledge authorship. This avoids the uncertainties of liability and discovery.
Revised and updated on an irregular basis
Last modified August 20, 1999
Source:http://www.netatty.com/privacy/privacy.html
The right to privacy in Internet activity is a serious issue facing society. 1 Some users of the 'net wish to shield their identities while participating in frank discussions of sensitive topics. Others fulfill fantasies and harmlessly role play under the cover of a false identity in chatrooms, MUDs or the IRC. But there are the eternal "bad apples," and on the Internet, they are the people who use anonymous servers as more than a way to avoid responsibility for controversial remarks. Cases of harassment and abuse have become increasingly frequent, aided by a cloak of anonymity. 2 There are also problems with frauds and scam artists who elude law enforcement authorities through anonymous mailings and postings. Other users are concerned about the proliferation of information on the Internet. Databases of court records are now available for free over the World Wide Web. 3
Since no formal law exists within cyberspace, Internet users can find recourse only through the applicable laws of their own government. This web page will not attempt to discuss conflict of law in the international arena, but will address US law and its relevance to the American Internet user.
CONSTITUTIONAL BASIS FOR PRIVACY
Nowhere does the text of the United States Constitution contain the word "privacy." 4 The Supreme Court has found the concept of "privacy" to be protected by a number of the Amendments.5 Thus, privacy is known as a "penumbra right." 6 It is the essence of the Bill of Rights and thus a guaranteed right.
INVASION OF PRIVACY
This page will discuss five aspects of invasion of privacy as it applies to American netizens. These are: search and seizure, unsolicited e-mail, defamation, secrecy and the creation of databases consisting of personal information.
The United States Supreme Court has stated that American citizens have the protection of the Fourth Amendment (freedom from search and seizure absent warrant) when there is a reasonable expectation of privacy. 7 Without a reasonable expectation of privacy, however, there is no privacy right to protect. 8 Files stored on disk or tape in the home are protected, but the rule becomes less clear when applied to files stored on an Internet access provider's server. 9 Web servers, on the other hand, may be protected by federal law. 10 Some argue that consent of the access provider, however, is all that is required for law enforcement authorities to search and seize any files in the possession of that access provider. Internet service providers may have a lot of information about the users because servers routinely record information about users' e-mail and web browsing habits. 11
Unsolicited email is not regulated by federal law at present. Various states have outlawedunsolicited commercial email, however. A federal judge in Philadelphiahas ruled that companies have no First Amendment right to send unsolicited messages to online service subscribers. 13 One community remedy preferred by many users is to complain to the offender's service provider and publicly denounce the action on the Internet Blacklist. Another possibility for those with Eudora for the PC is to filter out unsolicited email. 14 Other free software claims to eliminate unwanted email. 15 Individuals have sued spammers in court and won. 16
Individual states specifically prohibit defamation, no matter what form it takes. Defamation consists of false and unprivileged publication which results in economic damages. Financial loss is not necessary where the statement implies that a person is a criminal or has an unpleasant disease, or which injures a person in respect to his other office, profession, or business. A judge in Texas issued an injunction to stop defamatory posting by an Internet user. 17 Hate messages sent by e-mail have also resulted in criminal penalties. 18
In some cases, companies have asked the court system to identify the authors of anonymous defamatorymessages. This has been done by filing "John Doe" lawsuits andissuing subpoenas to Yahoo! and other message boards where individuals have posted the disparaging messages. 19 Most such subpoenas go unchallenged. 20 One CompuServe user has complained that his service provider turned over account information, including credit card numbers, without any notice to him.21 One such plaintiff, Raytheon Corporation, dropped its suit as soon as it discovered the names of the people posting anonymous messages.22
Trade secrets and other confidential information can also pose legal problems. Unauthorized entry into a computer system is illegal, whether the target machine is connected to the Internet or not. 23 Nevertheless, hackers still manage to get past the most difficult of firewalls. 24 Compromise of company secrets can lead to millions of dollars in damages. Hacking is not the only danger to sensitive information, however. 25 Some software can tell webmasters which visitors came from which links. 26 In addition, all e-mail has an address attached. Even if the messagecontent is encrypted, system administrators have access to the fact of communication between two parties. 27 The existence of communication can itself often be secret, and the Internet cannot provide absolute security. In many ways, the Internet abhors secrecy. Many netizens believe in an absolute free-flow of all information.
A few companies are creating huge databases full of private information. 28 Websites may even collect email addresses inadvertently. 29 In many cases, there is no prohibition on the dissemination of personal information. 30 The federal government regulates only its own databases, leaving private database owners to decide how and when to distribute collected information. 31
Webmasters have begun using "cookies" as a means of accumulating information about web surfers without having to ask for it. 32 Cookies attempt to keep track of visitors to a Web site. 33 Criticism of cookies has included fear of the loss of privacy. 34 The information that cookies collect from users may be profitable both in the aggregate and by the individual. Whether the convenience that cookies provide outweighs the loss of privacy isaquestion each Internet user must decide for him or herself. 35
America OnLine has been accused of selling data based information about users. 36 This has led to an effort on the part of cookie proponents to control the amount of information that cookies collect. 37 Not all proponents of cookies adhere to the voluntary standards. The Federal Trade Commission determined that Geocities, a popular web site where users input personal information, was selling information in apparent violation of its own privacy policy. 38
WAIVER
Internet users sometimes do not realize the amount of privacy that is lost when accessing the online world. Usenet postings and contributions to bulletin boards may remain archived forever. 39 Public records are available free or for a fee. 40 While much of this information has been freely available in the past, the advent of the Internet has made it available more easily and quickly.
LIABILITY
Generally, there is no safety in activity that is unlawful. Anonymity should not be considered a secure shield because, ultimately, any data may be intercepted. 41 An offender is specifically liable for damages to the victim. At times, this liability can be extended to include others (e.g. an employer) with a greater capacity for satisfying the judgment.
In addition, there is current disagreement about whether a system operator or an access provider should be held liable. 42 The 1996 Telecommunications Act protects access providers from liability for the unlawful acts of users (except copyright infringement or obscenity). 43 Some Courts have protected ISPs and online services from vicarious liability for the acts of subscribers/customers. On the other hand, vicarious liability, even without knowledge, may result when either the web page designer or the ISP (1) has the right and ability to control the infringer's acts and (2) receives a direct financial benefit from the infringement.
JURISDICTION
The law surrounding issues of jurisdiction over individualsand businesses with an online presence continues to evolve. 44 The first such case was U.S. v. Thomas. Courts in Minnesota, Arizona and Ohio have made similar determinations. One Californiacase is Hall v. LaRonde. In that opinion, the California Appellate Court stated that creating a contract over email could warrant the exercise of jurisdiction. Some argue that the nature of the Internet could result in forum shopping and the necessity of modifying traditional notions of venue requirements. 45 Other courts have declined to exercise jurisdiction on the simple basis of accessibility of the Web page. 46 So the question of whether any individual court will decide to find jurisdiction on any specific set of facts is an issue for the judge hearing the case. The US Supreme Court will almost certainly lay down some guidelines within the next few years.
PROTECTION
Avoiding the seizure of communication in transit is less a legal problem than a technological one. There is software that can provide privacy protection for the individual Internet user. 47 Hardware exists that can prevent very sophisticated industrial espionage. 48 Of most concern to the common Internet user is protection of email. The most famous encryption software is PGP,created by Phil Zimmerman. The U.S. government has attempted to suppress other means of strong encryption. 49 These attempts have not always been successful, however. 50
Anonymous discourse is still available through the use of "remailers." 51 Various problems with the anon.penet.fi forwarding service, a famous anonymous remailing service in Finland, have led to a discontinuation of that service. 52 Other remailers continue to provide anonymity to e-mail and Usenet participants. 53
The key to anonymous publishing on the World Wide Web is to have as many web servers within the control and/or trust of the publisher. It also helpsto have a number of other servers performing a service to the community.Ian Goldburg and David Wagner at Berkeley are attempting to provide that service. 54
Recent versions of Netscape and Internet Explorer give web surfers the option of refusing to accept cookies. Windows users may automatically delete all cookies with every restart of the machine. 55
CONCLUSION
Before attempting anonymity on the Internet, it is best to think for a moment about your purpose and intent in hiding your identity. Think as well about the impact of the statement you wish to communicate. The safest course may be to acknowledge authorship. This avoids the uncertainties of liability and discovery.
Revised and updated on an irregular basis
Last modified August 20, 1999
Source:http://www.netatty.com/privacy/privacy.html
Privacy in the Internet
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Internet privacy consists of privacy over the media of the Internet: the ability to control what information one reveals about oneself over the Internet, and to control who can access that information. Many people use the term to mean universal Internet privacy: every user of the Internet possessing Internet privacy.
Internet privacy forms a subset of computer privacy. A number of experts within the field of Internet security and privacy believe that security doesn't exist; "Privacy is dead - get over it"[1] according to Steve Rambam, private investigator specialising in Internet privacy cases. Privacy advocates believe that it should exist.
Levels of privacy
People with only a casual concern for Internet privacy need not achieve total anonymity. Internet users may achieve an adequate level of privacy through controlled disclosure of personal information. The revelation of IP addresses, non-personally-identifiable profiling, and similar information might become acceptable trade-offs for the convenience that users could otherwise lose using the workarounds needed to suppress such details rigorously. On the other hand, some people desire much stronger privacy. In that case, they may try to achieve Internet anonymity to ensure privacy — use of the Internet without giving any third parties the ability to link the Internet activities to personally-identifiable information of the Internet user.
[edit] Risks to Internet privacy
Those concerned about Internet privacy often cite a number of privacy risks — events that can compromise privacy — which may be encountered through Internet use. These methods of compromise can range from the gathering of statistics on users, to more malicious acts such as the spreading of spyware and various forms of bug exploitation.
Privacy measures are provided on several social networking sites to try to provide their users with protection for their personal information. On Facebook for example privacy settings are available for all registered users. The settings available on Facebook include the ability to block certain individuals from seeing your profile, the ability to choose your "friends," and the ability to limit who has access to your pictures and videos. Privacy settings are also available on other social networking sites such as E-harmony and MySpace. It is the user's prerogative to apply such settings when providing personal information on the internet.
Internet privacy consists of privacy over the media of the Internet: the ability to control what information one reveals about oneself over the Internet, and to control who can access that information. Many people use the term to mean universal Internet privacy: every user of the Internet possessing Internet privacy.
Internet privacy forms a subset of computer privacy. A number of experts within the field of Internet security and privacy believe that security doesn't exist; "Privacy is dead - get over it"[1] according to Steve Rambam, private investigator specialising in Internet privacy cases. Privacy advocates believe that it should exist.
Levels of privacy
People with only a casual concern for Internet privacy need not achieve total anonymity. Internet users may achieve an adequate level of privacy through controlled disclosure of personal information. The revelation of IP addresses, non-personally-identifiable profiling, and similar information might become acceptable trade-offs for the convenience that users could otherwise lose using the workarounds needed to suppress such details rigorously. On the other hand, some people desire much stronger privacy. In that case, they may try to achieve Internet anonymity to ensure privacy — use of the Internet without giving any third parties the ability to link the Internet activities to personally-identifiable information of the Internet user.
[edit] Risks to Internet privacy
Those concerned about Internet privacy often cite a number of privacy risks — events that can compromise privacy — which may be encountered through Internet use. These methods of compromise can range from the gathering of statistics on users, to more malicious acts such as the spreading of spyware and various forms of bug exploitation.
Privacy measures are provided on several social networking sites to try to provide their users with protection for their personal information. On Facebook for example privacy settings are available for all registered users. The settings available on Facebook include the ability to block certain individuals from seeing your profile, the ability to choose your "friends," and the ability to limit who has access to your pictures and videos. Privacy settings are also available on other social networking sites such as E-harmony and MySpace. It is the user's prerogative to apply such settings when providing personal information on the internet.
OPERATING SYSTEM
-From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
An operating system (commonly abbreviated to either OS or O/S) is an interface between hardware and user; an OS is responsible for the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of the computer. The operating system acts as a host for computing applications that are run on the machine. As a host, one of the purposes of an operating system is to handle the details of the operation of the hardware. This relieves application programs from having to manage these details and makes it easier to write applications. Almost all computers (including handheld computers, desktop computers, supercomputers, video game consoles) as well as some robots, domestic appliances (dishwashers, washing machines), and portable media players use an operating system of some type. [1] Some of the oldest models may however use an embedded operating system, that may be contained on a compact disk or other data storage device.
Operating systems offer a number of services to application programs and users. Applications access these services through application programming interfaces (APIs) or system calls. By invoking these interfaces, the application can request a service from the operating system, pass parameters, and receive the results of the operation. Users may also interact with the operating system with some kind of software user interface (UI) like typing commands by using command line interface (CLI) or using a graphical user interface (GUI, commonly pronounced “gooey”). For hand-held and desktop computers, the user interface is generally considered part of the operating system. On large multi-user systems like Unix and Unix-like systems, the user interface is generally implemented as an application program that runs outside the operating system. (Whether the user interface should be included as part of the operating system is a point of contention.)
Common contemporary operating system families include BSD, Darwin (Mac OS X), Linux, SunOS (Solaris/OpenSolaris), and Windows NT (XP/Vista/7). While servers generally run Unix or some Unix-like operating system, embedded system markets are split amongst several operating systems.[2][3]
An operating system (commonly abbreviated to either OS or O/S) is an interface between hardware and user; an OS is responsible for the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of the computer. The operating system acts as a host for computing applications that are run on the machine. As a host, one of the purposes of an operating system is to handle the details of the operation of the hardware. This relieves application programs from having to manage these details and makes it easier to write applications. Almost all computers (including handheld computers, desktop computers, supercomputers, video game consoles) as well as some robots, domestic appliances (dishwashers, washing machines), and portable media players use an operating system of some type. [1] Some of the oldest models may however use an embedded operating system, that may be contained on a compact disk or other data storage device.
Operating systems offer a number of services to application programs and users. Applications access these services through application programming interfaces (APIs) or system calls. By invoking these interfaces, the application can request a service from the operating system, pass parameters, and receive the results of the operation. Users may also interact with the operating system with some kind of software user interface (UI) like typing commands by using command line interface (CLI) or using a graphical user interface (GUI, commonly pronounced “gooey”). For hand-held and desktop computers, the user interface is generally considered part of the operating system. On large multi-user systems like Unix and Unix-like systems, the user interface is generally implemented as an application program that runs outside the operating system. (Whether the user interface should be included as part of the operating system is a point of contention.)
Common contemporary operating system families include BSD, Darwin (Mac OS X), Linux, SunOS (Solaris/OpenSolaris), and Windows NT (XP/Vista/7). While servers generally run Unix or some Unix-like operating system, embedded system markets are split amongst several operating systems.[2][3]
Some Operating Systems
AmigaOS 4
Bee GNU/Hurd
Commodore International/Carl Sassenrath
Debian
Debian GNU/kFreeBSD Gentoo/FreeBSD
Debian GNU/NetBSD
DragonFly BSD
FreeBSD
GNU/Hurd
HelenOS
Inferno
L4
Linux
Mac OS X
Minix 3
NetBSD
Nexenta OS
Novell NetWare
OpenBSD
OpenDarwin GNU/Darwin
Plan 9 from Bell Labs
ReactOS
Solaris Operating System,
SunOS
Windows NT, 2000,
XP, 2003, Vista
Bee GNU/Hurd
Commodore International/Carl Sassenrath
Debian
Debian GNU/kFreeBSD Gentoo/FreeBSD
Debian GNU/NetBSD
DragonFly BSD
FreeBSD
GNU/Hurd
HelenOS
Inferno
L4
Linux
Mac OS X
Minix 3
NetBSD
Nexenta OS
Novell NetWare
OpenBSD
OpenDarwin GNU/Darwin
Plan 9 from Bell Labs
ReactOS
Solaris Operating System,
SunOS
Windows NT, 2000,
XP, 2003, Vista
IPO MODEL
The Input-Process-Output Model also known as the IPO+S Model is a functional model and conceptual schema of a general system. An IPO chart identifies a program’s inputs, its outputs, and the processing steps required to transform the inputs into the outputs.
The IPO model has many interdisciplinary applications, and is used to convey systems fundamentals in IT overview education and as a brainstorming, preliminary investigation tool in systems development processes such as the SDLC. It consists of at least three, and sometimes four, distinct components. In contemporary Information Technology, it is almost always discussed as a four component model in which the fourth is a named optional.
The components of the IPO model are defined as:
I: Input - The information, ideas, and resources used
P: Processing - Actions taken upon/using input or stored material
O: Output - Results of the processing that then exit the system
S: Storage - Location(s) where material inside the system is/are placed for possible use at a later time (optional)
-From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The IPO model has many interdisciplinary applications, and is used to convey systems fundamentals in IT overview education and as a brainstorming, preliminary investigation tool in systems development processes such as the SDLC. It consists of at least three, and sometimes four, distinct components. In contemporary Information Technology, it is almost always discussed as a four component model in which the fourth is a named optional.
The components of the IPO model are defined as:
I: Input - The information, ideas, and resources used
P: Processing - Actions taken upon/using input or stored material
O: Output - Results of the processing that then exit the system
S: Storage - Location(s) where material inside the system is/are placed for possible use at a later time (optional)
-From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Computer Systems
INPUT DEVICE
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
An input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment) used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system (such as a computer).
Examples of input devices
• Webcam
• Touchscreens and light pens
• Image scanner
• Fingerprint scanner
• Barcode reader
• 3D scanner
• Laser rangefinder
• Microphone
• MIDI keyboard
• Computer keyboard
• Keyer
• Chorded keyboard
• LPFK
OUTPUT DEVICES
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results of data processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) to the outside world.
In computing, input/output, or I/O, refers to the communication between an information processing system (such as a computer), and the outside world. Inputs are the signals or data sent to the system, and outputs are the signals or data sent by the system to the outside.
The most common input devices used by the computer are the keyboard and mouse. The keyboard allows the entry of textual information while the mouse allows the selection of a point on the screen by moving a screen cursor to the point and pressing a mouse button. The most common outputs are monitors and speakers.
Computer display, display device
Cathode ray tube
Flat panel display
Thin Film Transistor
Liquid Crystal Display
Storage tube
Computer printer
Laser printer
Inkjet printer
Electrostatic printer
Thermal printer
Film recorder
Industrial Digital Printers
Plotter
Head-mounted display
Projectors
Video projector
LCD projector
Laser projector
Volumetric displays
Swept-volume display
Varifocal mirror display
Emissive volume display
Laser display
Holographic display
OTHER OUTPUT DEVICES;
* PRINTER
* PLOTTER
* SPEAKER
* HEADSET
STORAGE DEVICE
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Many different consumer electronic devices can store data.
Edison cylinder phonograph ca. 1899. The Phonograph cylinder is a storage medium. The phonograph may or may not be considered a storage device.
A reel-to-reel tape recorder (Sony TC-630). The magnetic tape is a data storage medium. The recorder is data storage equipment using a portable medium (tape reel) to store the data.
Crafting tools such as paint brushes can be used as data storage equipment. The paint and canvas can be used as data storage media.
RNA might be the oldest data storage medium [1], now replaced by DNA in most organisms.
A data storage device is a device for recording (storing) information (data). Recording can be done using virtually any form of energy, spanning from manual muscle power in handwriting, to acoustic vibrations in phonographic recording, to electromagnetic energy modulating magnetic tape and optical discs.
A storage device may hold information, process information, or both. A device that only holds information is a recording medium. Devices that process information (data storage equipment) may either access a separate portable (removable) recording medium or a permanent component to store and retrieve information.
Electronic data storage is storage which requires electrical power to store and retrieve that data. Most storage devices that do not require vision and a brain to read data fall into this category. Electromagnetic data may be stored in either an analog or digital format on a variety of media. This type of data is considered to be electronically encoded data, whether or not it is electronically stored in a semiconductor device, for it is certain that a semiconductor device was used to record it on its medium. Most electronically processed data storage media (including some forms of computer data storage) are considered permanent (non-volatile) storage, that is, the data will remain stored when power is removed from the device. In contrast, most electronically stored information within most types of semiconductor (computer chips) microcircuits are volatile memory, for it vanishes if power is removed.
With the exception of barcodes and OCR data, electronic data storage is easier to revise and may be more cost effective than alternative methods due to smaller physical space requirements and the ease of replacing (rewriting) data on the same medium. However, the durability of methods such as printed data is still superior to that of most electronic storage media. The durability limitations may be overcome with the ease of duplicating (backing-up) electronic data.
According to http://www.webopedia.com
Storage device is a device capable of storing data. The term usually refers to mass storage devices, such as disk and tape drives.
Hard Drives
Flash Memory
Network Storage Devices
Optical Drives
Controllers
Floppy/Tape
USB/FireWire Devices
Tape Libraries and Autoloaders
I/O Cards
Disc Duplicators
Fiber Cards
Data storage equipment
Any input/output equipment may be considered data storage equipment if it writes to and reads from a data storage medium. Data storage equipment uses either:
portable methods (easily replaced),
semi-portable methods requiring mechanical disassembly tools and/or opening a chassis, or
inseparable methods meaning loss of memory if disconnected from the unit.
The following are examples of those methods:
[edit] Portable methods
Hand crafting
Flat surface
Printmaking
Photographic
Fabrication
Automated assembly
Textile
Molding
Solid freeform fabrication
Cylindrical accessing
Card reader/drive
Tape drive
Mono reel or reel-to-reel
Compact Cassette player/recorder
Disk accessing
Disk drive
Disk enclosure
Cartridge accessing/connecting (tape/disk/circuitry)
Peripheral networking
Flash memory devices
[edit] Semi-portable methods
Hard disk drive
Circuitry with non-volatile RAM
[edit] Inseparable methods
Circuitry with volatile RAM
Neurons[4]
[edit] Recording medium
A recording medium is a physical material that holds data expressed in any of the existing recording formats. With electronic media, the data and the recording medium is sometimes referred to as "software" despite the more common use of the word to describe computer software. With (traditional art) static media, art materials such as crayons may be considered both equipment and medium as the wax, charcoal or chalk material from the equipment becomes part of the surface of the medium.
Some recording media may be temporary either by design or by nature. Volatile organic compounds may be used to preserve the environment or to purposely make data expire over time. Data such as smoke signals or skywriting are temporary by nature. Depending on the volatility, a gas (e.g. atmosphere, smoke) or a liquid surface such as a lake would be considered a temporary recording medium if at all.
[edit] Ancient and timeless examples
The Gutenberg Bible displayed by the United States Library of Congress, demonstrating printed pages as a storage medium.
A set of index cards in a file box are a nonlinear storage medium.Optical
Any object visible to the eye, used to mark a location such as a, stone, flag or skull.
Any crafting material used to form shapes such as clay, wood, metal, glass, wax or quipu.
Any branding surface that would scar under intense heat (chiefly for livestock or humans).
Any marking substance such as paint, ink or chalk.
Any surface that would hold a marking substance such as, papyrus, paper, skin.
Chemical
RNA
DNA
Pheromone
[edit] Modern examples by energy used
Graffiti on a public wall. Public surfaces are being used as unconventional data storage media, often without permission.
Photographic film is a photochemical data storage medium
A floppy disk is a magnetic data storage medium
Hitachi 2.5 inch laptop hard drive. A hard drive is both storage equipment and a storage mediumChemical
Dipstick
Thermodynamic
Thermometer
Photochemical
Photographic film
Mechanical
Pins and holes
Punch card
Paper tape
Music roll
Music box cylinder or disk
Grooves (See also Audio Data)
Phonograph cylinder
Gramophone record
DictaBelt (groove on plastic belt)
Capacitance Electronic Disc
Magnetic storage
Wire recording (stainless steel wire)
Magnetic tape
Drum memory (magnetic drum)
Floppy disk
Optical storage
Photo paper
X-ray
Microform
Hologram
Projected transparency
Optical disc
Magneto-optical disc
Holographic data storage
3D optical data storage
Electrical
Semiconductor used in volatile RAM microchips
Floating-gate transistor used in non-volatile memory cards
PROCESS
According to wikipedia.com
A central processing unit (CPU) or processor is an electronic circuit that can execute computer programs. This topic has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s (Weik 1961). The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed dramatically since the earliest examples, but their fundamental operation has remained much the same.
Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, sometimes one-of-a-kind, computer. However, this costly method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of mass-produced processors that are made for one or many purposes. This standardization trend generally began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of these digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in everything from automobiles to cell phones to children's toys.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
An input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment) used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system (such as a computer).
Examples of input devices
• Webcam
• Touchscreens and light pens
• Image scanner
• Fingerprint scanner
• Barcode reader
• 3D scanner
• Laser rangefinder
• Microphone
• MIDI keyboard
• Computer keyboard
• Keyer
• Chorded keyboard
• LPFK
OUTPUT DEVICES
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results of data processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) to the outside world.
In computing, input/output, or I/O, refers to the communication between an information processing system (such as a computer), and the outside world. Inputs are the signals or data sent to the system, and outputs are the signals or data sent by the system to the outside.
The most common input devices used by the computer are the keyboard and mouse. The keyboard allows the entry of textual information while the mouse allows the selection of a point on the screen by moving a screen cursor to the point and pressing a mouse button. The most common outputs are monitors and speakers.
Computer display, display device
Cathode ray tube
Flat panel display
Thin Film Transistor
Liquid Crystal Display
Storage tube
Computer printer
Laser printer
Inkjet printer
Electrostatic printer
Thermal printer
Film recorder
Industrial Digital Printers
Plotter
Head-mounted display
Projectors
Video projector
LCD projector
Laser projector
Volumetric displays
Swept-volume display
Varifocal mirror display
Emissive volume display
Laser display
Holographic display
OTHER OUTPUT DEVICES;
* PRINTER
* PLOTTER
* SPEAKER
* HEADSET
STORAGE DEVICE
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Many different consumer electronic devices can store data.
Edison cylinder phonograph ca. 1899. The Phonograph cylinder is a storage medium. The phonograph may or may not be considered a storage device.
A reel-to-reel tape recorder (Sony TC-630). The magnetic tape is a data storage medium. The recorder is data storage equipment using a portable medium (tape reel) to store the data.
Crafting tools such as paint brushes can be used as data storage equipment. The paint and canvas can be used as data storage media.
RNA might be the oldest data storage medium [1], now replaced by DNA in most organisms.
A data storage device is a device for recording (storing) information (data). Recording can be done using virtually any form of energy, spanning from manual muscle power in handwriting, to acoustic vibrations in phonographic recording, to electromagnetic energy modulating magnetic tape and optical discs.
A storage device may hold information, process information, or both. A device that only holds information is a recording medium. Devices that process information (data storage equipment) may either access a separate portable (removable) recording medium or a permanent component to store and retrieve information.
Electronic data storage is storage which requires electrical power to store and retrieve that data. Most storage devices that do not require vision and a brain to read data fall into this category. Electromagnetic data may be stored in either an analog or digital format on a variety of media. This type of data is considered to be electronically encoded data, whether or not it is electronically stored in a semiconductor device, for it is certain that a semiconductor device was used to record it on its medium. Most electronically processed data storage media (including some forms of computer data storage) are considered permanent (non-volatile) storage, that is, the data will remain stored when power is removed from the device. In contrast, most electronically stored information within most types of semiconductor (computer chips) microcircuits are volatile memory, for it vanishes if power is removed.
With the exception of barcodes and OCR data, electronic data storage is easier to revise and may be more cost effective than alternative methods due to smaller physical space requirements and the ease of replacing (rewriting) data on the same medium. However, the durability of methods such as printed data is still superior to that of most electronic storage media. The durability limitations may be overcome with the ease of duplicating (backing-up) electronic data.
According to http://www.webopedia.com
Storage device is a device capable of storing data. The term usually refers to mass storage devices, such as disk and tape drives.
Hard Drives
Flash Memory
Network Storage Devices
Optical Drives
Controllers
Floppy/Tape
USB/FireWire Devices
Tape Libraries and Autoloaders
I/O Cards
Disc Duplicators
Fiber Cards
Data storage equipment
Any input/output equipment may be considered data storage equipment if it writes to and reads from a data storage medium. Data storage equipment uses either:
portable methods (easily replaced),
semi-portable methods requiring mechanical disassembly tools and/or opening a chassis, or
inseparable methods meaning loss of memory if disconnected from the unit.
The following are examples of those methods:
[edit] Portable methods
Hand crafting
Flat surface
Printmaking
Photographic
Fabrication
Automated assembly
Textile
Molding
Solid freeform fabrication
Cylindrical accessing
Card reader/drive
Tape drive
Mono reel or reel-to-reel
Compact Cassette player/recorder
Disk accessing
Disk drive
Disk enclosure
Cartridge accessing/connecting (tape/disk/circuitry)
Peripheral networking
Flash memory devices
[edit] Semi-portable methods
Hard disk drive
Circuitry with non-volatile RAM
[edit] Inseparable methods
Circuitry with volatile RAM
Neurons[4]
[edit] Recording medium
A recording medium is a physical material that holds data expressed in any of the existing recording formats. With electronic media, the data and the recording medium is sometimes referred to as "software" despite the more common use of the word to describe computer software. With (traditional art) static media, art materials such as crayons may be considered both equipment and medium as the wax, charcoal or chalk material from the equipment becomes part of the surface of the medium.
Some recording media may be temporary either by design or by nature. Volatile organic compounds may be used to preserve the environment or to purposely make data expire over time. Data such as smoke signals or skywriting are temporary by nature. Depending on the volatility, a gas (e.g. atmosphere, smoke) or a liquid surface such as a lake would be considered a temporary recording medium if at all.
[edit] Ancient and timeless examples
The Gutenberg Bible displayed by the United States Library of Congress, demonstrating printed pages as a storage medium.
A set of index cards in a file box are a nonlinear storage medium.Optical
Any object visible to the eye, used to mark a location such as a, stone, flag or skull.
Any crafting material used to form shapes such as clay, wood, metal, glass, wax or quipu.
Any branding surface that would scar under intense heat (chiefly for livestock or humans).
Any marking substance such as paint, ink or chalk.
Any surface that would hold a marking substance such as, papyrus, paper, skin.
Chemical
RNA
DNA
Pheromone
[edit] Modern examples by energy used
Graffiti on a public wall. Public surfaces are being used as unconventional data storage media, often without permission.
Photographic film is a photochemical data storage medium
A floppy disk is a magnetic data storage medium
Hitachi 2.5 inch laptop hard drive. A hard drive is both storage equipment and a storage mediumChemical
Dipstick
Thermodynamic
Thermometer
Photochemical
Photographic film
Mechanical
Pins and holes
Punch card
Paper tape
Music roll
Music box cylinder or disk
Grooves (See also Audio Data)
Phonograph cylinder
Gramophone record
DictaBelt (groove on plastic belt)
Capacitance Electronic Disc
Magnetic storage
Wire recording (stainless steel wire)
Magnetic tape
Drum memory (magnetic drum)
Floppy disk
Optical storage
Photo paper
X-ray
Microform
Hologram
Projected transparency
Optical disc
Magneto-optical disc
Holographic data storage
3D optical data storage
Electrical
Semiconductor used in volatile RAM microchips
Floating-gate transistor used in non-volatile memory cards
PROCESS
According to wikipedia.com
A central processing unit (CPU) or processor is an electronic circuit that can execute computer programs. This topic has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s (Weik 1961). The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed dramatically since the earliest examples, but their fundamental operation has remained much the same.
Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, sometimes one-of-a-kind, computer. However, this costly method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of mass-produced processors that are made for one or many purposes. This standardization trend generally began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of these digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in everything from automobiles to cell phones to children's toys.
Business Information Systems: An Overview
The Purpose of Information Systems
Businesses use information systems
To make sound decisions
To solve problems
Problem is any undesirable situation
Decision arises when more than one solution to problem exists
The Purpose of Information Systems (continued)
Problem solving and decision making require information
Keys to success in business are
Gathering correct information
Storing information
Using information
Data, Information, and Information Systems
“Data”, “information” and “system” are commonly used terms
Important to understand their similarities and differences
Data: a given or fact
Can be number, statement, or picture
Information: facts or conclusions that have meaning within context
Composed of data that is manipulated
Data Manipulation
Data is manipulated to make useful information
Survey is common method of collecting data
Raw data is hard to read
Information is more useful to business than data
Generating Information
A process is manipulation of data
Process usually produces information
Process may produce more data
A piece of information in one context may be considered data in another context
Generating Information
Information in Context
Not all information is useful
Useful information is
Relevant
Complete
Accurate
Information in Context
Useful information is
Current
Obtained economically (in business)
Information in Context
What Is a System?
System: array of components that work together to achieve goal or goals
System
Accepts input
Processes input
Produces output
What is a system?
System may have multiple goals
System may contain subsystems
Subsystems have sub-goals that meet main goal
Subsystems transfer output to other subsystems
Closed system: has no connections with other systems
Open system: interfaces and interacts with other systems
Often a subsystem of a bigger system
Information system: processes data and produces information
Information and Managers
Systems thinking: thinking of an organization in terms of subsystems
Database: collection of electronic records
Information systems automate exchange among subsystems
Information map: network of information systems
Information technology: technologies that facilitate construction and maintenance of information systems
The Benefits of Human-Computer Synergy
Humans are relatively slow and make mistakes
Computers cannot make decisions
Synergy: combining resources to produce greater output
The Benefits of Human-Computer Synergy
Information Systems in Organizations
Computer-based Information system: system with computer at center
Certain trends have made information systems important in business
Organizations lag behind if they do not use information systems
Components of information systems
The Four Stages of Processing
Input: collect and introduce data to system
Transaction: a business event, usually entered as input
Data processing: perform calculations on input
Output: what is produced by the information system
Storage: vast amounts of data stored on optical discs
Computer Equipment for Information Systems
Input devices: receive input
Computer: process data
Output: displays information
Storage devices: store data
Network devices: transfer data
Computer Equipment for Information Systems
From Recording Transactions to Providing Expertise: Types of Information Systems
Many types of information systems
Capabilities of applications have been combined and merged
Management Information System: supports planning, control, and making decisions
Transaction Processing Systems
Most widely used type of system
Records data collected at point where organization interacts with other parties
Encompasses cash registers, ATMs and purchase order systems
Supply Chain Management Systems
Supply chain: sequence of activities involved in producing products
Activities include marketing, purchasing raw materials, manufacturing, shipping, billing, collection, and after-sale services
Also known as enterprise resource planning systems
Customer Relationship Management Systems
Customer relationship management: managing relations with customers
Used in combination with telephones to provide customer service
Often linked to Web applications that track online transactions
Business Intelligence Systems
Business Intelligence: gather data to help organization compete
Often contains statistical models
Access large pools of data
Data warehouse: large database that usually store transactional records
Decision Support and Expert Systems
Decision support system: supports decision-making
Relies on models to produce tables
Extrapolates data to predict outcomes
Expert system: supports knowledge-intensive decision-making
Uses artificial intelligence
Geographic Information Systems
Geographic information system: ties data to physical locations
Represents data on a map in different formats
May reflect demographic information in addition to geographic
May use information from GPS satellites
Geographic Information Systems
Information Systems in Business Functions
Functional business area: services within a company that support main business
Includes accounting, finance, marketing, and human resources
Part of a larger enterprise system
Accounting
Information systems help record transactions
Produce periodic statements
Create required reports for law
Create supplemental reports for managers
Finance
Finance systems facilitate financial planning and business transactions
Tasks include organizing budgets, managing cash flow, analyzing investments, and making decisions
Marketing
Pinpoint likely customers and promote products
Marketing information systems analyze demand for products in regions and demographic groups
Identify trends in demand for products/services
Web provides opportunity to collect marketing data
Human Resources
Human resource management systems aid record-keeping
Must keep accurate records
Aids recruiting, selection, placement, and reward analysis
Performance evaluation systems provide grading utilities
Web Empowered Enterprises
E-commerce: Buying and selling goods and services through Internet
Internet is a vast network of computers connected globally
Web has a profound impact on information systems
Chief Information Officer and Chief Technology Officer
Chief information officer: responsible for all aspects of information system
Often the vice president
Chief technology officer: has similar duties as CIO
Chief Information Officer and Chief Technology Officer
Businesses use information systems
To make sound decisions
To solve problems
Problem is any undesirable situation
Decision arises when more than one solution to problem exists
The Purpose of Information Systems (continued)
Problem solving and decision making require information
Keys to success in business are
Gathering correct information
Storing information
Using information
Data, Information, and Information Systems
“Data”, “information” and “system” are commonly used terms
Important to understand their similarities and differences
Data: a given or fact
Can be number, statement, or picture
Information: facts or conclusions that have meaning within context
Composed of data that is manipulated
Data Manipulation
Data is manipulated to make useful information
Survey is common method of collecting data
Raw data is hard to read
Information is more useful to business than data
Generating Information
A process is manipulation of data
Process usually produces information
Process may produce more data
A piece of information in one context may be considered data in another context
Generating Information
Information in Context
Not all information is useful
Useful information is
Relevant
Complete
Accurate
Information in Context
Useful information is
Current
Obtained economically (in business)
Information in Context
What Is a System?
System: array of components that work together to achieve goal or goals
System
Accepts input
Processes input
Produces output
What is a system?
System may have multiple goals
System may contain subsystems
Subsystems have sub-goals that meet main goal
Subsystems transfer output to other subsystems
Closed system: has no connections with other systems
Open system: interfaces and interacts with other systems
Often a subsystem of a bigger system
Information system: processes data and produces information
Information and Managers
Systems thinking: thinking of an organization in terms of subsystems
Database: collection of electronic records
Information systems automate exchange among subsystems
Information map: network of information systems
Information technology: technologies that facilitate construction and maintenance of information systems
The Benefits of Human-Computer Synergy
Humans are relatively slow and make mistakes
Computers cannot make decisions
Synergy: combining resources to produce greater output
The Benefits of Human-Computer Synergy
Information Systems in Organizations
Computer-based Information system: system with computer at center
Certain trends have made information systems important in business
Organizations lag behind if they do not use information systems
Components of information systems
The Four Stages of Processing
Input: collect and introduce data to system
Transaction: a business event, usually entered as input
Data processing: perform calculations on input
Output: what is produced by the information system
Storage: vast amounts of data stored on optical discs
Computer Equipment for Information Systems
Input devices: receive input
Computer: process data
Output: displays information
Storage devices: store data
Network devices: transfer data
Computer Equipment for Information Systems
From Recording Transactions to Providing Expertise: Types of Information Systems
Many types of information systems
Capabilities of applications have been combined and merged
Management Information System: supports planning, control, and making decisions
Transaction Processing Systems
Most widely used type of system
Records data collected at point where organization interacts with other parties
Encompasses cash registers, ATMs and purchase order systems
Supply Chain Management Systems
Supply chain: sequence of activities involved in producing products
Activities include marketing, purchasing raw materials, manufacturing, shipping, billing, collection, and after-sale services
Also known as enterprise resource planning systems
Customer Relationship Management Systems
Customer relationship management: managing relations with customers
Used in combination with telephones to provide customer service
Often linked to Web applications that track online transactions
Business Intelligence Systems
Business Intelligence: gather data to help organization compete
Often contains statistical models
Access large pools of data
Data warehouse: large database that usually store transactional records
Decision Support and Expert Systems
Decision support system: supports decision-making
Relies on models to produce tables
Extrapolates data to predict outcomes
Expert system: supports knowledge-intensive decision-making
Uses artificial intelligence
Geographic Information Systems
Geographic information system: ties data to physical locations
Represents data on a map in different formats
May reflect demographic information in addition to geographic
May use information from GPS satellites
Geographic Information Systems
Information Systems in Business Functions
Functional business area: services within a company that support main business
Includes accounting, finance, marketing, and human resources
Part of a larger enterprise system
Accounting
Information systems help record transactions
Produce periodic statements
Create required reports for law
Create supplemental reports for managers
Finance
Finance systems facilitate financial planning and business transactions
Tasks include organizing budgets, managing cash flow, analyzing investments, and making decisions
Marketing
Pinpoint likely customers and promote products
Marketing information systems analyze demand for products in regions and demographic groups
Identify trends in demand for products/services
Web provides opportunity to collect marketing data
Human Resources
Human resource management systems aid record-keeping
Must keep accurate records
Aids recruiting, selection, placement, and reward analysis
Performance evaluation systems provide grading utilities
Web Empowered Enterprises
E-commerce: Buying and selling goods and services through Internet
Internet is a vast network of computers connected globally
Web has a profound impact on information systems
Chief Information Officer and Chief Technology Officer
Chief information officer: responsible for all aspects of information system
Often the vice president
Chief technology officer: has similar duties as CIO
Chief Information Officer and Chief Technology Officer
About Information Systems
Information Systems have a number of different areas of work:
- Information systems strategy
- Information systems management
- Information systems development
- Information systems security
There are a wide variety of career paths in the information systems discipline. "Workers with specialized technical knowledge and strong communications skills will have the best prospects. People with management skills and an understanding of business practices and principles will have excellent opportunities, as companies are increasingly looking to technology to drive their revenue." [3]
Types of information systems
As new information technologies are developed, new categories emerge that can be used to classify information systems. Some examples are:
- Transaction processing systems
- Management information systems
- Decision support systems
- Expert systems
- Office Automation
- Business intelligence
Information systems development
Information technology departments in larger organizations tend to strongly influence information technology development, use, and application in the organizations, which may be a business or corporation. A computer based information system, following a definition of Langefors[4], is:
- a technologically implemented medium for recording, storing, and disseminating linguistic expressions,
- as well as for drawing conclusions from such expressions.
which can be formulated as a generalized information systems design mathematical program.
Information systems development methodology
Information systems development methodology or ISDM is a tool kit of ideas, approaches, techniques and tools which system analysts use to help them translate organisational needs into appropriate Information Systems;
An ISDM is:-
'....recommended collection of philosophies, phases, procedures, rules, techniques, tools, documentation, management, and training for developers of Information Systems”. (Avison and Fitzgerald, 1988)
Information systems research
Information systems research is generally concerned with the study of the effects of information systems on the behavior of individuals, groups, and organizations.[5][6] Notable publication outlets for information systems research are the journals Management Information Systems Quarterly, Information Systems Research, Journal of the Association for Information Systems, and Communications of the Association for Information Systems.
Since information systems is an applied field, industry practitioners expect information systems research to generate findings that are immediately applicable in practice. However, that is not always the case. Often information systems researchers explore behavioral issues in much more depth than practitioners would expect them to do. This may render information systems research results difficult to understand, and has led to criticism.[7]
To study an information system itself, rather than its effects, information systems models are used, such as EATPUT.
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/information+system
What Information Technology offer us
Information technology (IT), as defined by the Information Technology Association of America (ITAA), is
"the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems, particularly software applications and computer hardware."[1] IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, protect, process, transmit, and securely retrieve information.
Today, the term information technology has ballooned to encompass many aspects of computing and technology, and the term has become very recognizable. The information technology umbrella can be quite large, covering many fields. IT professionals perform a variety of duties that range from installing applications to designing complex computer networks and information databases. A few of the duties that IT professionals perform may include data management, networking, engineering computer hardware, database and software design, as well as the management and administration of entire systems.
When computer and communications technologies are combined, the result is information technology, or "infotech". Information technology is a general term that describes any technology that helps to produce, manipulate, store, communicate, and/or disseminate information. Presumably, when speaking of Information Technology (IT) as a whole, it is noted that the use of computers and information are associated.
The term information technology is sometimes said to have been coined by Jim Domsic of Michigan in November 1981.[citation needed] Domsic, who worked as a computer manager for an automotive related industry, is supposed to have created the term to modernize the outdated phrase "data processing". The Oxford English Dictionary, however, in defining information technology as "the branch of technology concerned with the dissemination, processing, and storage of information, esp. by means of computers" provides an illustrative quote from the year 1958 (Leavitt & Whisler in Harvard Business Rev. XXXVI. 41/1 "The new technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology.") that predates the so-far unsubstantiated Domsic coinage.
In recent years ABET and the ACM have collaborated to form accreditation and curriculum standards for degrees in Information Technology as a distinct field of study separate from both Computer Science and Information Systems. SIGITE is the ACM working group for defining these standards.
In the broadest sense, information technology refers to both the hardware and software that are used to store, retrieve, and manipulate information. At the lowest level you have the servers with an operating system. Installed on these servers are things like database and web serving software. The servers are connected to each other and to users via a network infrastructure. And the users accessing these servers have their own hardware, operating system, and software tools.
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